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「 不動產估價師法 」明文規定不動產估價師必須通過考試取得專業證照外,須有兩年的估價實務經驗並領有不動產開業證書後,始能正式執業, 不動產鑑價將比照會計師 ,正式邁向證照與簽證制,此法案的通過,對導正不動產估價的市場秩序,將有積極的正面影響。
不動產估價師法第十四條規定 :「不動產估價師受委託人之委託,辦理土地、建築改良物、農作改良物及其權利之估價業務。」 估價師任務如下:
一、 金融機構不動產抵押擔保物之估價。
二、 公開發行公司不動產買賣交易之估價。
三、 法院民事執行處拍賣不動產之估價。
四、 法院民事糾紛有關土地分割、合併等之估價。
五、 都市更新權利變換前後不動產價值之估價。
六、 聯合開發有關政府、地主、投資者之權益價值估價。
七、 土地開發合建分配之權益價值估價。
八、 土地重劃前後地主權益價值估價。
九、 區段徵收地主分配抵價地估價。
十、 政府公共工程徵收地上改良物之估價。
十一、 政府公共工程徵收農作改良物之估價。
十二、 政府公共工程土地徵收之估價。
十三、 不動產證券化之不動產開發價值之估價。
十四、 各項工程造價或鄰房損害之不動產價值減損之估價。
十五、 土地使用分區變更前後之價值差異估價。
十六、 會計作業對不動產以最近日期重新估價。
十七、 企業購併對不動產價值之估價。
十八、 企業投資以不動產作價入股之估價。
十九、 各級政府公有不動產標售、買賣之估價。
二十、 移民國外有關之不動產價值之估價。
二十一、 不動產權利(地上權、抵押權等)之估價。
二十二、 其他土地、建築改良物、農作改良物及其權利之估價。
不動產估價師的主要 業務 範圍,包括:金融機構抵押放款擔保品估價、法拍屋底價訂定之估價、證券化不動產估價、都市更新權利變換價值評估、會計財務公報10號、35號以時價認定資產價值、銀行不良資產評價…等。
不動產估價是指對: 房產 、 土地 、 森林 、 構築物… 等。不動產進行價值評估
其是以 不動產 為對象,由專業估價人員,根據估價目的,遵循估價原則,按照估價程式,選用適宜的估價方法,在綜合分析影響不動產價格因素的基礎上,對不動產在估價時的客觀合理價格或價值進行估算或判定的活動。其意義在於:為不動產市場交易提供客觀標準;不動產資產的價值化更有利於優化資源配置;公平賦稅等。
根據估價目的、遵循估價原則,按照估價程式,選用適宜的估價方法,併在綜合分析影響不動產價格因素的基礎上,對不動產在估價時點的客 觀合理價格或價值進行估算和判定的活動。需把握兩點:(1)不動產估價是科學與藝術的有機結合;(2)不動產估價是把客觀存在的不動產價格揭示、顯現出來。
一、為不動產市場交易服務
由於不動產產品自身的特點,如位置的固定性、質量的差異性、使用的耐久性或持久性、利用的限制性、價格的昂貴性等,使得不動產市場有不同於一般市場的特征。
二、有利於提高不動產經濟運行效率
不動產經濟運行的過程,是不動產經濟資源 (如土地、建材、技術、資金、勞動力)要素配置的過程。
三、確立公平的收益分配製度的基礎
公平的收益分配製度是經濟運行的基礎和根本保證,對於不動產業來講,也是如此。在不動產開發經營過程中,其收益分配問題涉及不動產的多元產權主體、多元投資主體。
四、有利於稅負公平
由於不動產的地域性或異質性特征,不同地區或同一地區不同地點乃至同一道路的兩邊、同一棟樓的不同層次價格都會有很大的差異,如果公按不動產的面積徵稅,則會造成嚴重的稅負不公平;若根據該物業的收益價格來徵稅,則相對公平。據此,從一個城市來看,總體而論市中心的不動產價格相對昂貴,賦稅就重;而越遠離市中心,不動產價格相對越低,則賦稅越輕。
不動產估價是對不動產的客觀合理價格或價值的估算和判定,客觀合理價格或價值是估價對象在某種估價目的的特定條件下形成的正常價格,它能為當事人或社會一般人所信服和接受,為當事人提供公平可信的價格參考依據。但是它並不取代當事人的民事權利。不動產定價往往是當事人的行為,不動產的最終成交價格是由當事人自己決定的。當事人出於某種目的可以使其成交價格高於或低於正常價格,即當事人可以將其成交價格定為低於或高於評估價格。
前言: 不動產估價師於製作估價報告書時除標示勘估標的之基本資料、價格日期及勘察日期、估價條件及估價目的外,於決定勘估標的價格前應敘明不動產價值的定義與種類。一般而言,「不動產估價技術規則 」、國際評價準則(最新之國際評價準則為2012年版)及進行「企業評價 」時,對於價格種類、價格標準及價格前提等,均有相似或不同之規定,對於初學者而言,常會造成混淆,因此,本期電子報將依「不動產估價技術規則 」之規定作介紹,使讀者能有初步的瞭解。
依「不動產估價技術規則 」之規定,估計價格種類有正常價格、限定價格、特定價格及較少使用的特殊價格等四種,而估計租金種類有正常租金及限定租金兩種。下方將為您介紹前述四種不動產估計價格之種類,讓大家對 正常價格 、 特定價格 、 限定價格 、 特殊價格 有約略的認識。惟如有錯誤或遺漏之處,仍尚請不吝賜教,萬分謝謝!
一、相關法規
何謂正常價格 、特定價格 、限定價格 及特殊價格 ?大家或許都是一知半解,依據不動產價格種類及定義規範於不動產技術規則第二條(以下節錄介紹):
一、正常價格:
指具有市場性之不動產,於有意願之買賣雙方,依專業知識、謹慎行動,不受任何脅迫,經適當市場行銷及正常交易條件形成之合理價值,並以貨幣金額表示者。
二、限定價格:
指具有市場性之不動產,在下列限定條件之一所形成之價值,並以貨幣金額表示者:
(一)以不動產所有權以外其他權利與所有權合併為目的。
(二)以不動產合併為目的。
(三)以違反經濟合理性之不動產分割為前提。
三、特定價格:
指具有市場性之不動產,基於特定條件下形成之價值,並以貨幣金額表示者。
四、特殊價格:
指對不具市場性之不動產所估計之價值,並以貨幣金額表示者。
接下來就上述四種不動產價格種類作詳細介紹及舉例,讓讀者有概略的認識。
二、價格種類之介紹
(一)正常價格:
正常價格為一般估價報告書中最常使用之價格種類。所謂正常價格即是於公開市場經集體行為所創造的客觀價值。在理性、公開市場上,買賣雙方在資訊充分、不受脅迫利誘的情況下經正常交易時間而願意成交的價格為市場價格。不動產估價師透過市場價格行情與勘估標的作分析比較後,決定之價格,即為正常價格。
台灣不動產交易屬於公開市場,一般買賣物件皆可於各大房仲網供人瀏覽、比價,而內政部地政司及部分房仲業網站亦有提供區域成交行情可茲參考,未來透過「實價登錄」之實施,不動產交易愈透明,市場價格亦趨於健全、合理。
另外比較標的有下列情況,應先作適當之調整;該影響交易價格之情況無法有效掌握及量化調整時,應不予採用。
1.急買急賣。
2.期待因素影響之交易。
3.受債權債務關係影響之交易。
4.親友關係人間之交易。
5.畸零地或有合併使用之交易。
6.地上物處理有糾紛之交易。
7.法院拍賣。
8.受迷信影響之交易。
9.包含公共設施用地之交易。
10.人為哄抬之交易。
11.其他。
(二)限定價格:
依據不動產技術規則定義限定價格有以下三個要件:
1.具有市場性
2.限定條件之下
3.以貨幣金額表示
其內容有以下三大類:
一 以不動產所有權以外其他權利與所有權合併為目的。
包括土地所有權人購買租賃權、地上權或承租人購買租賃地、地上權人購買土地所有權等。透過上述之買賣,可擁有完全所有權,其可在該土地或不動產從事最高最有效利用。所以,在評估該不動產價值時,係以已完成產權合併前提下之不動產價格,此一價格將與正常市價有所差異,即形成限定價格。
二 以不動產合併為目的。
不動產合併能夠創造出合併後不動產之最有效利用時,被合併之不動產常能創造較高的附加價值。其合併之內容包含土地、建物及產權等。因此,其評估價格通常高於正常價格。
估價上常見案例如:某一宗地面積過小或畸零,無法自行開發利用,須經由與其他土地合併開發方能增加使用效益。在評估該宗地價值時,係以已完成合併前提下之價格,即形成限定價格。
三 以違反經濟合理性之不動產分割為前提。
不動產分割後,其不若分割前之最有效利用,往往使分割後的不動產價值降低,且低於正常價格的水準,此時之評估價格為限定價格。
(三)特定價格:
特定價格係指具有市場性之不動產,基於特定條件下形成之價值,並以貨幣金額表示者。若估價條件含有不確定性,則以特定條件敘明。特定條件舉例而言,指尚未實現,但基於法令、財務、市場、規劃等可行性分析之開發營運計畫條件。實際情形則須由不動產估價師於應用特定價格時,確實敘明該特定條件。
特定價格的案例包括:
1.企業在合併時之資產重新估價,如不動產投資信託或不動產證券化所作之估價。
2.特殊土地之估價:礦地、溫泉地等不動產估價。
3.依土地徵收補償之不動產價值。
(四)特殊價格:
特殊價格係指不具市場性之不動產所估計之價值,並以貨幣金額表示者。
由於該不動產具有獨特、不可取代性,無法以正常市場價值評估者,的案例包括:
1.學校、公園或軍事等公共設施或公益使用之不動產估價。
2.不以成交為目的之資產評估之不動產:如總統府、歷史、文化、宗教建物、世界文化遺產等。
三、結論
不動產技術規則第6條規定:「不動產估價,應註明其價格種類;其以特定價格或限定價格估價者,應敘明其估價條件,並同時估計其正常價格。」註明不動產價格種類,對於委託者、不動產估價師、使用報告者之間,都可確認不動產估價條件,並協助不動產估價師依據委託者提供之資料,針對不動產設定條件不同,選用及分析的適當估價方法,評估該不動產之價值。
一般估價報告書之鑑定價格種類仍以正常價格為主,若以限定價格、特定價格或特殊價格除作為評估價值參考依據時,除需說明評估限定、特定或特殊價值之原因外,仍需標示正常價格,除讓讀者明確了解不動產估價條件外,更可比較限定、特定或特殊價值與正常價格之差別。
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Money Laundering
What is Money Laundering?
Money laundering is the illegal process of making large amounts of money generated by a criminal activity, such as drug trafficking or terrorist funding, appear to have come from a legitimate source. The money from the criminal activity is considered dirty, and the process "launders" it to make it look clean.
Money laundering is a serious financial crime that is employed by white collar and street-level criminals alike.1? Most financial companies have anti-money-laundering (AML) policies in place to detect and prevent this activity.
KEY TAKEAWAYS
Money laundering is the illegal process of making "dirty" money appear legitimate instead of ill-gotten.
Criminals use a wide variety of money laundering techniques to make illegally obtained funds appear clean.
Online banking and cryptocurrencies have made it easier for criminals to transfer and withdraw money without detection.
The prevention of money laundering has become an international effort and now includes terrorist funding among its targets.
How Money Laundering Works
Money laundering is essential for criminal organizations that wish to use illegally obtained money effectively. Dealing in large amounts of illegal cash is inefficient and dangerous. Criminals need a way to deposit the money in legitimate financial institutions, yet they can only do so if it appears to come from legitimate sources.
Banks are required to report large cash transactions and other suspicious activities that might be signs of money laundering.
The process of laundering money typically involves three steps: placement, layering, and integration.
Placement puts the "dirty money" into the legitimate financial system.
Layering conceals the source of the money through a series of transactions and bookkeeping tricks.
In the final step, integration, the now-laundered money is withdrawn from the legitimate account to be used for whatever purposes the criminals have in mind for it.
There are many ways to launder money, from the simple to the very complex. One of the most common techniques is to use a legitimate, cash-based business owned by a criminal organization. For example, if the organization owns a restaurant, it might inflate the daily cash receipts to funnel illegal cash through the restaurant and into the restaurant's bank account. After that, the funds can be withdrawn as needed. These types of businesses are often referred to as "fronts."
Money Laundering Variants
In one common form of money laundering, called smurfing (also known as "structuring"), the criminal breaks up large chunks of cash into multiple small deposits, often spreading them over many different accounts, to avoid detection. Money laundering can also be accomplished through the use of currency exchanges, wire transfers, and "mules"—cash smugglers, who sneak large amounts of cash across borders and deposit them in foreign accounts, where money-laundering enforcement is less strict.
Other money-laundering methods involve investing in commodities such as gems and gold that can easily be moved to other jurisdictions, discreetly investing in and selling valuable assets such as real estate, gambling, counterfeiting; and using shell companies (inactive companies or corporations that essentially exist on paper only).
Electronic Money Laundering
The Internet has put a new spin on the old crime. The rise of online banking institutions, anonymous online payment services and peer-to-peer (P2P) transfers with mobile phones have made detecting the illegal transfer of money even more difficult. Moreover, the use of proxy servers and anonymizing software makes the third component of money laundering, integration, almost impossible to detect—money can be transferred or withdrawn leaving little or no trace of an IP address.
Money can also be laundered through online auctions and sales, gambling websites, and virtual gaming sites, where ill-gotten money is converted into gaming currency, then back into real, usable, and untraceable "clean" money.
The newest frontier of money laundering involves cryptocurrencies, such as Bitcoin. While not totally anonymous, they are increasingly being used in blackmail schemes, the drug trade, and other criminal activities due to their relative anonymity compared with more conventional forms of currency.
Anti-money-laundering laws (AML) have been slow to catch up to these types of cybercrimes, since most of the laws are still based on detecting dirty money as it passes through traditional banking institutions.
Preventing Money Laundering
Governments around the world have stepped up their efforts to combat money laundering in recent decades, with regulations that require financial institutions to put systems in place to detect and report suspicious activity. The amount of money involved is substantial. According to the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, global money laundering transactions account for roughly $800 billion to $2 trillion annually, or some 2% to 5% of global GDP.
In 1989, the Group of Seven (G-7) formed an international committee called the Financial Action Task Force (FATF) in an attempt to fight money laundering on an international scale. In the early 2000s, its purview was expanded to combating the financing of terrorism.
The United States passed the Banking Secrecy Act in 1970, requiring financial institutions to report certain transactions to the Department of the Treasury, such as cash transactions above $10,000 or any others they deem suspicious, on a suspicious activity report (SAR).3? The information the banks provide to the Treasury Department is used by the Financial Crimes Enforcement Network (FinCEN), which can share it with domestic criminal investigators, international bodies or foreign financial intelligence units.
While these laws were helpful in tracking criminal activity, money laundering itself wasn't made illegal in the United States until 1986, with the passage of the Money Laundering Control Act. Shortly after the 9/11 terrorist attacks, the USA Patriot Act expanded money-laundering efforts by allowing investigative tools designed for organized crime and drug trafficking prevention to be used in terrorist investigations.
The Association of Certified Anti-Money Laundering Specialists (ACAMS) offers a professional designation known as a Certified Anti-Money Laundering Specialist (CAMS). Individuals who earn CAMS certification may work as brokerage compliance managers, Bank Secrecy Act officers, financial intelligence unit managers, surveillance analysts and financial crimes investigative analysts.
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What is Money Laundering?
The goal of a large number of criminal acts is to generate a profit for the individual or group that carries out the act. Money laundering is the processing of these criminal proceeds to disguise their illegal origin. This process is of critical importance, as it enables the criminal to enjoy these profits without jeopardising their source.
Illegal arms sales, smuggling, and the activities of organised crime, including for example drug trafficking and prostitution rings, can generate huge amounts of proceeds. Embezzlement, insider trading, bribery and computer fraud schemes can also produce large profits and create the incentive to “legitimise” the ill-gotten gains through money laundering.
When a criminal activity generates substantial profits, the individual or group involved must find a way to control the funds without attracting attention to the underlying activity or the persons involved. Criminals do this by disguising the sources, changing the form, or moving the funds to a place where they are less likely to attract attention.
In response to mounting concern over money laundering, the Financial Action Task Force on money laundering (FATF) was established by the G-7 Summit in Paris in 1989 to develop a co-ordinated international response. One of the first tasks of the FATF was to develop Recommendations, 40 in all, which set out the measures national governments should take to implement effective anti-money laundering programmes.
How much money is laundered per year?
By its very nature, money laundering is an illegal activity carried out by criminals which occurs outside of the normal range of economic and financial statistics. Along with some other aspects of underground economic activity, rough estimates have been put forward to give some sense of the scale of the problem.
The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) conducted a study to determine the magnitude of illicit funds generated by drug trafficking and organised crimes and to investigate to what extent these funds are laundered. The report estimates that in 2009, criminal proceeds amounted to 3.6% of global GDP, with 2.7% (or USD 1.6 trillion) being laundered.
This falls within the widely quoted estimate by the International Monetary Fund, who stated in 1998 that the aggregate size of money laundering in the world could be somewhere between two and five percent of the world’s gross domestic product. Using 1998 statistics, these percentages would indicate that money laundering ranged between USD 590 billion and USD 1.5 trillion. At the time, the lower figure was roughly equivalent to the value of the total output of an economy the size of Spain.
However, the above estimates should be treated with caution. They are intended to give an estimate of the magnitude of money laundering. Due to the illegal nature of the transactions, precise statistics are not available and it is therefore impossible to produce a definitive estimate of the amount of money that is globally laundered every year. The FATF therefore does not publish any figures in this regard.
How is money laundered?
In the initial - or placement - stage of money laundering, the launderer introduces his illegal profits into the financial system. This might be done by breaking up large amounts of cash into less conspicuous smaller sums that are then deposited directly into a bank account, or by purchasing a series of monetary instruments (cheques, money orders, etc.) that are then collected and deposited into accounts at another location.
After the funds have entered the financial system, the second – or layering – stage takes place. In this phase, the launderer engages in a series of conversions or movements of the funds to distance them from their source. The funds might be channelled through the purchase and sales of investment instruments, or the launderer might simply wire the funds through a series of accounts at various banks across the globe. This use of widely scattered accounts for laundering is especially prevalent in those jurisdictions that do not co-operate in anti-money laundering investigations. In some instances, the launderer might disguise the transfers as payments for goods or services, thus giving them a legitimate appearance.
Having successfully processed his criminal profits through the first two phases the launderer then moves them to the third stage – integration – in which the funds re-enter the legitimate economy. The launderer might choose to invest the funds into real estate, luxury assets, or business ventures.
Where does money laundering occur?
As money laundering is a consequence of almost all profit generating crime, it can occur practically anywhere in the world. Generally, money launderers tend to seek out countries or sectors in which there is a low risk of detection due to weak or ineffective anti-money laundering programmes. Because the objective of money laundering is to get the illegal funds back to the individual who generated them, launderers usually prefer to move funds through stable financial systems.
Money laundering activity may also be concentrated geographically according to the stage the laundered funds have reached. At the placement stage, for example, the funds are usually processed relatively close to the under-lying activity; often, but not in every case, in the country where the funds originate.
With the layering phase, the launderer might choose an offshore financial centre, a large regional business centre, or a world banking centre – any location that provides an adequate financial or business infrastructure. At this stage, the laundered funds may also only transit bank accounts at various locations where this can be done without leaving traces of their source or ultimate destination.
Finally, at the integration phase, launderers might choose to invest laundered funds in still other locations if they were generated in unstable economies or locations offering limited investment opportunities.
How does money laundering affect business?
The integrity of the banking and financial services marketplace depends heavily on the perception that it functions within a framework of high legal, professional and ethical standards. A reputation for integrity is the one of the most valuable assets of a financial institution.
If funds from criminal activity can be easily processed through a particular institution – either because its employees or directors have been bribed or because the institution turns a blind eye to the criminal nature of such funds – the institution could be drawn into active complicity with criminals and become part of the criminal network itself. Evidence of such complicity will have a damaging effect on the attitudes of other financial intermediaries and of regulatory authorities, as well as ordinary customers.
As for the potential negative macroeconomic consequences of unchecked money laundering, one can cite inexplicable changes in money demand, prudential risks to bank soundness, contamination effects on legal financial transactions, and increased volatility of international capital flows and exchange rates due to unanticipated cross-border asset transfers. Also, as it rewards corruption and crime, successful money laudering damages the integrity of the entire society and undermines democracy and the rule of the law.
What influence does money laundering have on economic development?
Launderers are continuously looking for new routes for laundering their funds. Economies with growing or developing financial centres, but inadequate controls are particularly vulnerable as established financial centre countries implement comprehensive anti-money laundering regimes.
Differences between national anti-money laundering systems will be exploited by launderers, who tend to move their networks to countries and financial systems with weak or ineffective countermeasures.
Some might argue that developing economies cannot afford to be too selective about the sources of capital they attract. But postponing action is dangerous. The more it is deferred, the more entrenched organised crime can become.
As with the damaged integrity of an individual financial institution, there is a damping effect on foreign direct investment when a country’s commercial and financial sectors are perceived to be subject to the control and influence of organised crime. Fighting money laundering and terrorist financing is therefore a part of creating a business friendly environment which is a precondition for lasting economic development.
What is the connection with society at large?
The possible social and political costs of money laundering, if left unchecked or dealt with ineffectively, are serious. Organised crime can infiltrate financial institutions, acquire control of large sectors of the economy through investment, or offer bribes to public officials and indeed governments.
The economic and political influence of criminal organisations can weaken the social fabric, collective ethical standards, and ultimately the democratic institutions of society. In countries transitioning to democratic systems, this criminal influence can undermine the transition. Most fundamentally, money laundering is inextricably linked to the underlying criminal activity that generated it. Laundering enables criminal activity to continue.
How does fighting money laundering help fight crime?
Money laundering is a threat to the good functioning of a financial system; however, it can also be the Achilles heel of criminal activity.
In law enforcement investigations into organised criminal activity, it is often the connections made through financial transaction records that allow hidden assets to be located and that establish the identity of the criminals and the criminal organisation responsible.
When criminal funds are derived from robbery, extortion, embezzlement or fraud, a money laundering investigation is frequently the only way to locate the stolen funds and restore them to the victims.
Most importantly, however, targeting the money laundering aspect of criminal activity and depriving the criminal of his ill-gotten gains means hitting him where he is vulnerable. Without a usable profit, the criminal activity will not continue.
What should individual governments be doing about it?
A great deal can be done to fight money laundering, and, indeed, many governments have already established comprehensive anti-money laundering regimes. These regimes aim to increase awareness of the phenomenon – both within the government and the private business sector – and then to provide the necessary legal or regulatory tools to the authorities charged with combating the problem.
Some of these tools include making the act of money laundering a crime; giving investigative agencies the authority to trace, seize and ultimately confiscate criminally derived assets; and building the necessary framework for permitting the agencies involved to exchange information among themselves and with counterparts in other countries.
It is critically important that governments include all relevant voices in developing a national anti-money laundering programme. They should, for example, bring law enforcement and financial regulatory authorities together with the private sector to enable financial institutions to play a role in dealing with the problem. This means, among other things, involving the relevant authorities in establishing financial transaction reporting systems, customer identification, record keeping standards and a means for verifying compliance.
Should governments with measures in place still be concerned?
Money launderers have shown themselves through time to be extremely imaginative in creating new schemes to circumvent a particular government’s countermeasures. A national system must be flexible enough to be able to detect and respond to new money laundering schemes.
Anti-money laundering measures often force launderers to move to parts of the economy with weak or ineffective measures to deal with the problem. Again, a national system must be flexible enough to be able to extend countermeasures to new areas of its own economy. Finally, national governments need to work with other jurisdictions to ensure that launderers are not able to continue to operate merely by moving to another location in which money laundering is tolerated.
What about multilateral initiatives?
Large-scale money laundering schemes invariably contain cross-border elements. Since money laundering is an international problem, international co-operation is a critical necessity in the fight against it. A number of initiatives have been established for dealing with the problem at the international level.
International organisations, such as the United Nations or the Bank for International Settlements, took some initial steps at the end of the 1980s to address the problem. Following the creation of the FATF in 1989, regional groupings – the European Union, Council of Europe, Organisation of American States, to name just a few – established anti-money laundering standards for their member countries. The Caribbean, Asia, Europe and southern Africa have created regional anti-money laundering task force-like organisations, and similar groupings are planned for western Africa and Latin America in the coming years.
Who can I contact if I suspect a case of money laundering?
The FATF is a policy-making body and has no investigative authority. In respect to investigating a company and persons involved in money laundering, individuals need to contact their local investigative authorities.
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